Enameling is quite a labor-intensive process, to say the least. Initially, the raw material is ground into a fine powder and mixed with an appropriate medium (either oils or water) to create a paint-like emulsion. This liquid is then applied like paint and subsequently fired in a kiln to vitrify it – the medium evaporates, allowing the powder to melt and fuse into glass. There are, of course, variations to these steps. For instance, some manufacturers opt to sieve the powder directly onto a base of brass or gold and fire this “layer” of powder directly. Regardless of the approach, each step is filled with potential hazards. The product may break during the firing stage, unseen impurities may appear as flaws, and colors could react unpredictably. Given these numerous risks, why does this craftsmanship remain in practice?
Even with its many challenges, enamel possesses a depth and subtlety that can’t be replicated elsewhere. It is also permanent – vitrified enamel is essentially inert and, like noble metals, will not change over a hundred years. The various techniques employed in enameling allow for a broad range of products, from a single large surface that is flawless to minute details in an enamel painting. Perhaps the romantic aspect of this craftsmanship explains part of its allure; the time and skill of the enameler serve as a perfect complement to the watchmaker, balancing artistry on one side with science on the other.
### Variations on Theme
Enamels are fired at different temperatures – or not at all – depending on their type. Grand feu (meaning “great fire”) enamel is typically fired at around 820 degrees Celsius, although intermediate firings to “set” it may occur at about 100 degrees Celsius, allowing the solvent to boil off without fusing the powder. Enamels in general, including those used in miniature painting, may also be fired at around 100 degrees Celsius.
What difference does this make? To start, higher temperatures are undoubtedly more challenging, as the enamel can crack during firing or the following cooling period. Additionally, the range of colors in grand feu enameling is more limited due to fewer compounds that can endure the temperature. The choice of technique ultimately depends on the desired end result – despite its drawbacks, grand feu enamel has a distinctive appearance. A striking monochromatic example is seen in the Breguet reference 5177. Enamels, porcelain, and lacquers all share properties such as hardness, durability, and the capability to achieve both matte and polished finishes. However, the three aren’t interchangeable. Lacquer is an organic finish applied in layers, with each layer curing at room temperature before the next is added. Porcelain is a ceramic created by firing materials in a kiln to vitrify them. Although enamel is also subject to firing, it only consists of glass and colorants, lacking the clay content typical of porcelain.
### Raised Fields
In champlevé enameling, a thick dial base is engraved to create hollow cells, which are then filled with enamel and fired. Since the engraving process leaves rough surfaces at the bottom of each cell, the champlevé technique generally only utilizes opaque enamels. This method allows specific areas on the dial to be excavated selectively and for enamels to be blended freely within each dial. This approach is effectively showcased in the Van Cleef & Arpels Brise d’Été (illustrated here), highlighting the brand’s decorative expertise not only in champlevé enameling but also in valloné and plique-à-jour techniques (discussed later). Valloné is a type of champlevé characterized by added depth and nuance due to hill-like reliefs.
Champlevé enameling is not confined to decorative arts. For instance, Parmigiani Fleurier’s Tecnica Ombre Blanche demonstrates this technique effectively. Although the timepiece has a straightforward white enamel dial, its surface is interrupted by three sub-dials and an aperture for the tourbillon. This watch debuted in 2016 and, despite Parmigiani Fleurier’s revitalization, it has yet to be revisited by the brand or any other. As noted in earlier discussions, the alternative would involve creating a complete enamel dial before cutting out the appropriate sections, which carries significant risks.
Is there a limit to detail levels achievable with champlevé enamel? Patek Philippe may have the answer with the Ref. 6002 Sun Moon Tourbillon (depicted here). Excluding the central area produced using the cloisonné technique (elaborated on later), the dial of this timepiece is comprised of champlevé enamel – even the railway track chapter ring features raised milled sections, filled with enamel and fired.
However, engraving isn’t the sole method to create the cells used in champlevé enamel. Hublot introduced a modern element with the Classic Fusion Enamel Britto, stamping the white gold dial base to form the raised borders between the cells. This innovation reduces the time required for each dial while ensuring uniformity. Subsequent steps remain unchanged: the cells are sequentially filled with various colors of enamel and fired multiple times before polishing the entire dial surface to achieve smoothness.
### Wire Work
Cloisonné enameling can be seen as the antithesis of the champlevé technique – instead of removing material from a dial blank, additional elements are added. The cloisons (meaning “partitions”) refer to the thin wires that the enamellist shapes and attaches to a base to create enclosed cells. These cells are subsequently filled with enamel of differing colors before firing the dial to fuse the powder. The wires remain visible in the final piece, appearing as the outlines of a drawing, with a metallic luster contrasting with the glossy surfaces of the infilled enamel.
Plique-à-jour (“letting in daylight”) enamel is a variation of cloisonné enameling, yet it is markedly rarer owing to its complexity and delicacy. Similar to cloisonné, plique-à-jour involves forming enclosed cells with wires, but here, there is no base. The absence of a backing can be achieved in various ways, typically involving the creation of a base layer like in cloisonné enameling, which is then filed away, leaving only the wires retaining the vitrified enamel. Since there is no backing, plique-à-jour enameling consistently involves transparent or translucent enamel, allowing light to permeate, effectively producing tiny stained glass-like windows.
Van Cleef & Arpels utilizes this technique exceptionally well. In the Lady Arpels Nuit Enchantee timepiece (featured here), the lower section is painted with grisaille enamel, providing a nighttime context for an upper section with elements executed in plique-à-jour (the fairy’s wings) and façonné enamel (to cradle the yellow sapphires) forming the foreground. The abundance of sapphires, diamonds, and rock crystal does not overshadow the artistry involved.
### Hybrid Theory
Numerous “hybrid” techniques merge enameling with other decorative arts, with flinqué enameling arguably being the most recognized due to its rich history. This technique fuses guillochage and enameling – a brass or gold dial is initially decorated with guilloché, after which layers of enamel are progressively applied and fired. When the enamel coating is sufficiently thick, it is polished until a smooth surface is achieved; the final product acts as a translucent lens that reveals the guilloché below. Depending on the desired effect, the enamel can be colorless for a subtle sheen or tinted for bolder visuals, as seen in the limited edition Rotonde de Cartier high complications introduced at Watches & Wonders 2015. Vacheron Constantin has adapted this technique, leveraging guilloché patterns to resemble woven fabrics in the Métiers d’Art Elégance Sartoriale.
Developed by the husband-and-wife duo Olivier and Dominique Vaucher, shaded enamel (email ombrant) involves applying translucent enamel over an engraved dial. Unlike the regular pattern used in guilloché, shaded enamel focuses on creating a relief image. This technique was recently used in the Hermès Arceau Tigre, although the watchmaker employs other hybrid techniques, prominently noticeable in the unique Arceau pocket cheval punk.
The final hybrid technique discussed is Cartier’s enamel granulation, which merges enameling with Etruscan granulation techniques originally used by goldsmiths. This craft requires several steps and is exceedingly intricate. Enamel is first shaped into threads of various diameters, then chipped away little by little to create beads of different sizes. These beads are sorted by color and applied to the dial in succession to form an image, involving intermediate firings to set and fuse the enamel. Since different enamel colors fuse at distinct temperatures, a specific order for assembly is mandatory; up to 30 firings may be necessary, with each dial taking nearly a month to complete. Like shaded enamel, enamel granulation is a modern development, with Cartier reviving the technique at its Maison des Métiers d’Art in La Chaux-de-Fonds.
### Metallic Content
Paillonné is one of the rarest enameling techniques today, closely associated with Jaquet Droz, which mainly focuses on special creations nowadays. The manufacture employed full-time enamellers who produced enamel dials and trained artisans to continue this craft. The term “paillon” signifies small decorative motifs created from gold leaf, which are emblematic of this technique. Essentially, paillonné enameling consists of embedding paillons within enamel to form patterns, with regular geometric designs being common. A prime example of this technique is the Patek Philippe Ref. 5077/100G models, as illustrated here. The process begins with a layer of colored enamel that is first fired to secure it. Subsequently, the paillons are positioned on this layer, followed by the application and firing of translucent enamel to “lock” the paillons in place. Additional steps exist to craft even more intricate designs. For instance, before applying the colored enamel layer, one could first decorate the substrate surface with guilloché, effectively creating flinqué enamel decorated with paillons over it. Alternatively, the substrate can be hand-engraved—there are no strict rules governing this procedure.
In a creative twist, Jaeger-LeCoultre employed a variation of the technique by scattering silver flecks randomly on the dial. The result is observed in the Hybris Artistica Duomètre Sphérotourbillon Enamel, where the enamel dial emulates the appearance of lapis lazuli. While not precisely paillonné enameling, Vacheron Constantin’s innovative use of hand-applied precious powders is noteworthy. In the manufacturer’s Métiers d’Art Villes Lumières timepieces, gold, platinum, diamond, and pearl powders are affixed on the surface of the enamel dial by Japanese enamel artisan Yoko Imai. Instead of being covered with a layer of enamel, these particles rest atop the enamel, reflecting light in varied ways to mimic a bird’s-eye view of a city at night.
### Brush Strokes
Enamel painting refers to the technique of painting using enamel pigments rather than a different medium. This method is complex not just because of the canvas size, leading to a “miniature painting” aspect, but also due to the multiple firings required to vitrify and set the enamels, color by color. Nevertheless, the level of detail achievable (demonstrated in the Patek Philippe Ref. 5531R here) makes it one of the few techniques capable of rendering subjects nearly lifelike. Take for example the Slim d’Hermès Pocket Panthère, showcasing this technique with its depiction of the panther.
Grisaille enamel can be considered a specialized form of enamel painting, characterized by the specific technique of painting in white on black to create monochromatic images. The black canvas is created from grand feu enamel, which must first be applied, fired, and polished to achieve a perfectly smooth surface devoid of flaws. This preparatory step is quite challenging, as even minute imperfections are easily detected on such a surface, which explains why most watch brands prefer white enamel dials and instead use black onyx or lacquer dials.
Upon this black backdrop, the enamellist employs Blanc de Limoges, a finely ground white enamel powder. To achieve minute details, fine brushes, needles, and even cactus thorns are used, with the dial being painted and fired multiple times to create the intricate imagery synonymous with grisaille enamel.
Due to its intricate nature, grisaille enamel is seldom encountered. Nevertheless, certain brands still produce metiers d’art watches featuring this technique, sometimes with their own interpretations. For example, in the Métiers d’Art Hommage à l’Art de la Danse collection, Vacheron Constantin chose to use translucent brown enamel for the dial base, imparting greater depth while softening the contrast between the two colors. Patek Philippe and Van Cleef also apply this technique in previously highlighted models.
This article first appeared in WOW’s Legacy 2025 Issue.
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